MOTHERBOARD DETAIL

MOTHERBOARD BACK SIDE

SERIAL PORTS 

File Systems-There are only a handful of file systems used with Windows operating systems. They are discussed in the following sections.

FAT (FAT16)-FAT16 was the original Windows file system for hard disks and served us well for many years. As larger hard disks were introduced, FAT16 lost some of its luster. The FAT16 file system will only recognize partitions up to 2 GB. Nowadays, hard drives far exceed 2 GB, forcing FAT16 users to partition their hard disks into many smaller portions. Another limitation of FAT is in its security. The FAT file system offers no local security on files and folders, making it unsuitable for use on any system where file confidentiality is important.

FAT32-FAT32 was introduced with Windows 95 OSR2, and offers some significant improvements over its predecessor, including more efficient use of hard disk space and support for larger hard disks up to 2 terabytes. Windows 2000 and Windows 9x operating systems, since the release of Windows 95 OSR2, support FAT32. It should be noted, however, that Windows NT 4 does not support FAT32.

NTFS-The NT file system, NTFS, was developed for the Windows NT operating system and offers significant improvements over FAT16 and FAT32 used in Windows 9x systems. In fact, for most applications, it is recommended that NTFS be used on Windows NT and Windows 2000 systems instead of FAT16 or FAT32. NTFS cannot be used on Windows 9x systems.

Some of the main characteristics and features of NTFS include

• Security

Unlike FAT file systems, NTFS offers file- and folder-level security. This means that it is possible to restrict access to files and folders on the local system. FAT partitions offer no local security

Volume size

NTFS allows for a theoretical maximum volume size of up to 2 TB.

• Logging

NTFS offers the ability to log system activities, and in case the system goes down, you can review those logs to help determine the cause of the shutdown.

• Disk performance

NTFS offers a higher level of performance than FAT, particularly with larger files.

• Compression

NTFS offers the ability to compress, on the fly, files on the drive, thus saving hard disk space.

NTFS5

The latest version of NTFS, NTFS5, was introduced with Windows 2000 (the version of NTFS in Windows NT is referred to as NTFS4). In addition to offering the same performance and security benefits of its predecessor, NTFS5 introduces some new features into the mix. Two of the more significant improvements are disk quotas and encryption. Each of these were discussed earlier in the chapter.

Types of ROM

                  Types of ROM

         1. Programmable Read Only Memory (PROM)

        •Empty of data when manufactured

        •May be permanently programmed by the user

      2. Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory (EPROM)

 •Can be programmed, erased and reprogrammed

 •The EPROM chip has a small window on top allowing it to be erased by shining ultra-violet light on it

 •After reprogramming the window is covered to prevent new contents being erased

 •Access time is around 45 – 90 nanoseconds

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üThe contents of ROM are fixed at the time of manufacture

üStores a program called the bootstrap loader that helps start up the computer

üAccess time of between 10 and 50 nanoseconds

3. Electrically Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory (EEPROM)

•Reprogrammed electrically without using ultraviolet light

•Must be removed from the computer and placed in a special machine to do this

•Access times between 45 and 200 nanoseconds

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4. Flash ROM

•Similar to EEPROM

•However, can be reprogrammed while still in the computer

•Easier to upgrade programs stored in Flash ROM

•Used to store programs in devices e.g. modems

•Access time is around 45 – 90 nanoseconds

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���>üThe contents of ROM are fixed at the time of manufacture

üStores a program called the bootstrap loader that helps start up the computer

üAccess time of between 10 and 50 nanoseconds

5. ROM cartridges

•Commonly used in games machines

•Prevents software from being easily copied  

Read only memory (ROM)

Read only memory (ROM)

üROM holds programs and data permanently even when        computer is switched off

ü Data can be read by the CPU in any order so ROM is also     direct access

üThe contents of ROM are fixed at the time of manufacture

üStores a program called the bootstrap loader that helps      start up the computer

üAccess time of between 10 and 50 nanoseconds

Types of RAM

Types of RAM 

1. Dynamic Random Access Memory (DRAM)

•Contents are constantly refreshed 1000 times per second

•Access time 60 – 70 nanoseconds

Note: a nanosecond is one billionth of a second

2. Synchronous Dynamic Random Access Memory (SDRAM)

•Quicker than DRAM

•Access time less than 60 nanoseconds

3. Direct Rambus Dynamic Random Access Memory (DRDRAM)

•New type of RAM architecture

•Access time 20 times faster than DRAM

•More expensive

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4. Static Random Access Memory (SRAM)

•Doesn’t need refreshing

•Retains contents as long as power applied to the chip

•Access time around 10 nanoseconds

•Used for cache memory

•Also for date and time settings as powered by small battery 

5. Cache memory

•Small amount of memory typically 256 or 512 kilobytes

•Temporary store for often used instructions

•Level 1 cache is built within the CPU (internal)

•Level 2 cache may be on chip or nearby (external)

•Faster for CPU to access than main memory

•Also for date and time settings as powered by small battery

6. Video Random Access memory

•Holds data to be displayed on computer screen

•Has two data paths allowing READ and WRITE to occur at the same time

•A system’s amount of VRAM relates to the number of colours and resolution

•A graphics card may have its own VRAM chip on board

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�[�or-index:1;mso-font-kerning:12.0pt;language:en-GB; font-weight:bold'>Level 2 cache may be on chip or nearby (external)

•Faster for CPU to access than main memory

7. Virtual memory

•Uses backing storage e.g. hard disk as a temporary location for programs and data where insufficient RAM available

•Swaps programs and data between the hard-disk and RAM as the CPU requires them for processing

•A cheap method of running large or many programs on a computer system

•Cost is speed: the CPU can access RAM in nanoseconds but hard-disk in milliseconds (Note: a millisecond is a thousandth of a second)

•Virtual memory is much slower than RAM

Dynamic RAM vs. Static RAM

Dynamic RAM vs. Static RAM

lDynamic RAM (DRAM) stores each bit of memory in a separate capacitor

lPros:

lOnly one transistor and capacitor are required per bit

lAllows for RAM to reach very high density

lCons:

lCapacitors leak electrons

lInformation is lost unless charge is refreshed periodically

lFor this requirement it has been given the description dynamic memory

Ques of Hardware

Que1   How many devices connected in a USB port?

Ans-127

Que-2  Which command use for disk to disk data copy?

    Ans -    xCopy

   Que-   3what is memory?

    Ans-   Which devices store data temporary or permanent                            called as memory.

   Que-4   Full form of  CUI and GUI?

    Ans-    CUI- Character user interface

                 GUI-Graphical user interface

   Que-5-Define hardware, software and firmware?

    Ans-  Hardware describe all the physical component use in                   the computer assembly. Exm-mouse monitor ram etc.

               Software - consist group of programme

                Firmware- firmware is a program is store on a chip                                                but not a software and not a hardware.

  Que -6  The ________ provides the first set of instructions to                     the computer as it boots up.

   Ans- BIOS

  Que-7  Firmware is a program that is stored on a chip but is                        not hardware or  software.

   Ans- true

Dynamic disk to Basic disk conversion

Dynamic disk to Basic disk conversion

To change a dynamic disk back to a basic disk using the Windows interface

1. Back up all volumes on the disk you want to convert from dynamic to basic.
2. In Disk Management, right-click each volume on the dynamic disk you want to convert to a basic disk, and then click Delete Volume for each volume on the disk.
3. When all volumes on the disk have been deleted, right-click the disk, and then click Convert to Basic Disk.

Dynamic disk to Basic disk conversion

To change a dynamic disk back to a basic disk using a command line

1. Back up all volumes on the disk you want to convert from dynamic to basic.
2. Open a command prompt and type diskpart.
3. At the DISKPART prompt, type list disk. Make note of the disk number you want to convert to basic.
4. At the DISKPART prompt, type select disk <disknumber>.
5. At the DISKPART prompt, type detail disk <disknumber>.
6. For each volume on the disk, at the DISKPART prompt, type select volume= <volumenumber> and then type delete volume.
7. At the DISKPART prompt, type select disk <disknumber>. Specify the disk number of the disk that you want to convert to a basic disk.
8. At the DISKPART prompt, type convert basic.

Networking Tips

Networking Tips

16. Define Routing?

The process of determining systematically hoe to forward messages toward the destination nodes based on its address is called routing.

17. What is a peer-peer process?

The processes on each machine that communicate at a given layer are called peer-peer process.

18. When a switch is said to be congested?

It is possible that a switch receives packets faster than the shared link can accommodate and stores in its memory, for an extended period of time, then the switch will eventually run out of buffer space, and some packets will have to be dropped and in this state is said to congested state.

19. What is semantic gap?

Defining a useful channel involves both understanding the applications requirements and recognizing the limitations of the underlying technology. The gap between what applications expects and what the underlying technology can provide is called semantic gap.

20. What is Round Trip Time?

The duration of time it takes to send a message from one end of a network to the other and back, is called RTT.

21. Define the terms Unicasting, Multiccasting and Broadcasting?

If the message is sent from a source to a single destination node, it is called Unicasting.
If the message is sent to some subset of other nodes, it is called Multicasting.
If the message is sent to all the m nodes in the network it is called Broadcasting.

22. What is Multiplexing?

Multiplexing is the set of techniques that allows the simultaneous transmission of multiple signals across a single data link.

23. Name the categories of Multiplexing?

a. Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM)
b. Time Division Multiplexing (TDM)
   i. Synchronous TDM
   ii. ASynchronous TDM Or Statistical TDM.
c. Wave Division Multiplexing (WDM)

24. What is FDM?

FDM is an analog technique that can be applied when the bandwidth of a link is greater than the combined bandwidths of the signals to be transmitted.

25. What is WDM?

WDM is conceptually the same as FDM, except that the multiplexing and demultiplexing involve light signals transmitted through fiber optics channel.

26. What is TDM?

TDM is a digital process that can be applied when the data rate capacity of the transmission medium is greater than the data rate required by the sending and receiving devices.

27. What is Synchronous TDM?

In STDM, the multiplexer allocates exactly the same time slot to each device at all times, whether or not a device has anything to transmit.

28. List the layers of OSI

a. Physical Layer
b. Data Link Layer
c. Network Layer
d. Transport Layer
e. Session Layer
f. Presentation Layer
g. Application Layer

29. Which layers are network support layers?

a. Physical Layer
b. Data link Layer and 
c. Network Layers

30. Which layers are user support layers?

a. Session Layer
b. Presentation Layer and 
c. Application Layer

31. Which layer links the network support layers and user support layers?

The Transport layer links the network support layers and user support layers.

32. What are the concerns of the Physical Layer?

Physical layer coordinates the functions required to transmit a bit stream over a physical medium.
a. Physical characteristics of interfaces and media
b. Representation of bits
c. Data rate
d. Synchronization of bits
e. Line configuration
f. Physical topology
g. Transmission mode

33. What are the responsibilities of Data Link Layer?

The Data Link Layer transforms the physical layer, a raw transmission facility, to a reliable link and is responsible for node-node delivery.
a. Framing
b. Physical Addressing
c. Flow Control
d. Error Control
e. Access Control

34. What are the responsibilities of Network Layer?

The Network Layer is responsible for the source-to-destination delivery of packet possibly across multiple networks (links).
a. Logical Addressing
b. Routing

35. What are the responsibilities of Transport Layer?

The Transport Layer is responsible for source-to-destination delivery of the entire message.
a. Service-point Addressing
b. Segmentation and reassembly
c. Connection Control
d. Flow Control
e. Error Control

36. What are the responsibilities of Session Layer?

The Session layer is the network dialog Controller. It establishes, maintains and synchronizes the interaction between the communicating systems.
a. Dialog control
b. Synchronization

37. What are the responsibilities of Presentation Layer?

The Presentation layer is concerned with the syntax and semantics of the information exchanged between two systems.
a. Translation
b. Encryption
c. Compression

38. What are the responsibilities of Application Layer?

The Application Layer enables the user, whether human or software, to access the network. It provides user interfaces and support for services such as e-mail, shared database management and other types of distributed information services.
a. Network virtual Terminal
b. File transfer, access and Management (FTAM)
c. Mail services
d. Directory Services

39. What are the two classes of hardware building blocks?

Nodes and Links.

40. What are the different link types used to build a computer network?

a. Cables
b. Leased Lines
c. Last-Mile Links
d. Wireless Links

Windows Shortcut keys

Windows Shortcut keys

Windows Shortcut keys

Windows key + R = Run menu
This is usually followed by:
cmd = Command Prompt
iexplore + "web address" = Internet Explorer
compmgmt.msc = Computer Management
dhcpmgmt.msc = DHCP Management
dnsmgmt.msc = DNS Management
services.msc = Services
eventvwr = Event Viewer
dsa.msc = Active Directory Users and Computers
dssite.msc = Active Directory Sites and Services
Windows key + E = Explorer

ALT + Tab = Switch between windows
ALT, Space, X = Maximize window
CTRL + Shift + Esc = Task Manager
Windows key + Break = System properties
Windows key + F = Search
Windows key + D = Hide/Display all windows
CTRL + C = copy
CTRL + X = cut
CTRL + V = paste
Also don't forget about the "Right-click" key next to the right Windows key on your keyboard. Using the arrows and that key can get just about anything done once you've opened up any program.

Keyboard Shortcuts
[Alt] and [Esc] Switch between running applications
[Alt] and letter Select menu item by underlined letter
[Ctrl] and [Esc] Open Program Menu
[Ctrl] and [F4] Close active document or group windows (does not work with some applications)
[Alt] and [F4] Quit active application or close current window
[Alt] and [-] Open Control menu for active document
Ctrl] Lft., Rt. arrow Move cursor forward or back one word
Ctrl] Up, Down arrow Move cursor forward or back one paragraph
[F1] Open Help for active application
Windows+M Minimize all open windows
Shift+Windows+M Undo minimize all open windows
Windows+F1 Open Windows Help
Windows+Tab Cycle through the Taskbar buttons
Windows+Break Open the System Properties dialog box

Acessability shortcuts
Right SHIFT for eight seconds........ Switch FilterKeys on and off.
Left ALT +left SHIFT +PRINT SCREEN....... Switch High Contrast on and off.
Left ALT +left SHIFT +NUM LOCK....... Switch MouseKeys on and off.
SHIFT....... five times Switch StickyKeys on and off.
NUM LOCK...... for five seconds Switch ToggleKeys on and off.
explorer shortcuts
END....... Display the bottom of the active window.
HOME....... Display the top of the active window.
NUM LOCK+ASTERISK....... on numeric keypad (*) Display all subfolders under the selected folder.
NUM LOCK+PLUS SIGN....... on numeric keypad (+) Display the contents of the selected folder.
NUM LOCK+MINUS SIGN....... on numeric keypad (-) Collapse the selected folder.
LEFT ARROW...... Collapse current selection if it's expanded, or select parent folder.
RIGHT ARROW....... Display current selection if it's collapsed, or select first subfolder.

Type the following commands in your Run Box (Windows Key + R) or Start Run
devmgmt.msc = Device Manager
msinfo32 = System Information
cleanmgr = Disk Cleanup
ntbackup = Backup or Restore Wizard (Windows Backup Utility)
mmc = Microsoft Management Console
excel = Microsoft Excel (If Installed)
msaccess = Microsoft Access (If Installed)
powerpnt = Microsoft PowerPoint (If Installed)
winword = Microsoft Word (If Installed)
frontpg = Microsoft FrontPage (If Installed)
notepad = Notepad
wordpad = WordPad
calc = Calculator
msmsgs = Windows Messenger
mspaint = Microsoft Paint
wmplayer = Windows Media Player
rstrui = System Restore
netscp6 = Netscape 6.x
netscp = Netscape 7.x
netscape = Netscape 4.x
waol = America Online
control = Opens the Control Panel
control printers = Opens the Printers Dialog

Internetbrowser
type in u're adress "google", then press [Right CTRL] and [Enter]
add www. and .com to word and go to it

For Windows XP:
Copy. CTRL+C
Cut. CTRL+X
Paste. CTRL+V
Undo. CTRL+Z
Delete. DELETE
Delete selected item permanently without placing the item in the Recycle Bin. SHIFT+DELETE
Copy selected item. CTRL while dragging an item
Create shortcut to selected item. CTRL+SHIFT while dragging an item
Rename selected item. F2
Move the insertion point to the beginning of the next word. CTRL+RIGHT ARROW
Move the insertion point to the beginning of the previous word. CTRL+LEFT ARROW
Move the insertion point to the beginning of the next paragraph. CTRL+DOWN ARROW
Move the insertion point to the beginning of the previous paragraph. CTRL+UP ARROW
Highlight a block of text. CTRL+SHIFT with any of the arrow keys
Select more than one item in a window or on the desktop, or select text within a document. SHIFT with any of the arrow keys
Select all. CTRL+A
Search for a file or folder. F3
View properties for the selected item. ALT+ENTER
Close the active item, or quit the active program. ALT+F4
Opens the shortcut menu for the active window. ALT+SPACEBAR
Close the active document in programs that allow you to have multiple documents open simultaneously. CTRL+F4
Switch between open items. ALT+TAB
Cycle through items in the order they were opened. ALT+ESC
Cycle through screen elements in a window or on the desktop. F6
Display the Address bar list in My Computer or Windows Explorer. F4
Display the shortcut menu for the selected item. SHIFT+F10
Display the System menu for the active window. ALT+SPACEBAR
Display the Start menu. CTRL+ESC
Display the corresponding menu. ALT+Underlined letter in a menu name
Carry out the corresponding command. Underlined letter in a command name on an open menu
Activate the menu bar in the active program. F10
Open the next menu to the right, or open a submenu. RIGHT ARROW
Open the next menu to the left, or close a submenu. LEFT ARROW
Refresh the active window. F5
View the folder one level up in My Computer or Windows Explorer. BACKSPACE
Cancel the current task. ESC
SHIFT when you insert a CD into the CD-ROM drive Prevent the CD from automatically playing.

Use these keyboard shortcuts for dialog boxes:

To Press
Move forward through tabs. CTRL+TAB
Move backward through tabs. CTRL+SHIFT+TAB
Move forward through options. TAB
Move backward through options. SHIFT+TAB
Carry out the corresponding command or select the corresponding option. ALT+Underlined letter
Carry out the command for the active option or button. ENTER
Select or clear the check box if the active option is a check box. SPACEBAR
Select a button if the active option is a group of option buttons. Arrow keys
Display Help. F1
Display the items in the active list. F4
Open a folder one level up if a folder is selected in the Save As or Open dialog box. BACKSPACE

If you have a Microsoft Natural Keyboard, or any other compatible keyboard that includes the Windows logo key and the Application key , you can use these keyboard shortcuts:


Display or hide the Start menu. WIN Key
Display the System Properties dialog box. WIN Key+BREAK
Show the desktop. WIN Key+D
Minimize all windows. WIN Key+M
Restores minimized windows. WIN Key+Shift+M
Open My Computer. WIN Key+E
Search for a file or folder. WIN Key+F
Search for computers. CTRL+WIN Key+F
Display Windows Help. WIN Key+F1
Lock your computer if you are connected to a network domain, or switch users if you are not connected to a network domain. WIN Key+ L
Open the Run dialog box. WIN Key+R
Open Utility Manager. WIN Key+U

accessibility keyboard shortcuts:
Switch FilterKeys on and off. Right SHIFT for eight seconds
Switch High Contrast on and off. Left ALT+left SHIFT+PRINT SCREEN
Switch MouseKeys on and off. Left ALT +left SHIFT +NUM LOCK
Switch StickyKeys on and off. SHIFT five times
Switch ToggleKeys on and off. NUM LOCK for five seconds
Open Utility Manager. WIN Key+U

shortcuts you can use with Windows Explorer:
Display the bottom of the active window. END
Display the top of the active window. HOME
Display all subfolders under the selected folder. NUM LOCK+ASTERISK on numeric keypad (*)
Display the contents of the selected folder. NUM LOCK+PLUS SIGN on numeric keypad (+)
Collapse the selected folder. NUM LOCK+MINUS SIGN on numeric keypad (-)
Collapse current selection if it's expanded, or select parent folder. LEFT ARROW
Display current selection if it's collapsed, or select first subfolder. RIGHT ARROW

Your Home Page Nevr Being Changed

Your Home Page Nevr Being Changed

Your Home Page Nevr Being Changed

Some websites illegally modify your registry editor and set their website as default home page, for stop this,

1. Right-click on the Internet Explorer icon on your desktop and select "Properties".

2. In the "Target" box you will see "C:\Program Files\Internet

Explorer\IEXPLORE.EXE".

3. Now by adding the URL of the site to the end of this it overrides any
Homepage setting in internet options:

"C:\Program Files\Internet Explorer\IEXPLORE.EXE" 

Windows fast key Shortcut Windows fast key Shortcut

Windows fast key Shortcut

Windows fast key Shortcut


compmgmt.msc - Computer management
devmgmt.msc - Device manager
diskmgmt.msc - Disk management
dfrg.msc - Disk defrag
eventvwr.msc - Event viewer
fsmgmt.msc - Shared folders
gpedit.msc - Group policies
lusrmgr.msc - Local users and groups
perfmon.msc - Performance monitor
rsop.msc - Resultant set of policies
secpol.msc - Local security settings
services.msc - Various Services
msconfig - System Configuration Utility
regedit - Registry Editor
msinfo32 _ System Information
sysedit _ System Edit
win.ini _ windows loading information(also system.ini)
winver _ Shows current version of windows
mailto: _ Opens default email client
command _ Opens command prompt

Command prompt shortcut

Command prompt shortcut

ANSI.SYS Defines functions that change display graphics, control cursor movement, and reassign keys.
APPEND Causes MS-DOS to look in other directories when editing a file or running a command.
ARP Displays, adds, and removes arp information from network devices.
ASSIGN Assign a drive letter to an alternate letter.
ASSOC View the file associations.
AT Schedule a time to execute commands or programs.
ATMADM Lists connections and addresses seen by Windows ATM call manager.
ATTRIB Display and change file attributes.
BATCH Recovery console command that executes a series of commands in a file.
BOOTCFG Recovery console command that allows a user to view, modify, and rebuild the boot.ini
BREAK Enable / disable CTRL + C feature.
CACLS View and modify file ACL's.
CALL Calls a batch file from another batch file.
CD Changes directories.
CHCP Supplement the International keyboard and character set information.
CHDIR Changes directories.
CHKDSK Check the hard disk drive running FAT for errors.
CHKNTFS Check the hard disk drive running NTFS for errors.
CHOICE Specify a listing of multiple options within a batch file.
CLS Clears the screen.
CMD Opens the command interpreter.
COLOR Easily change the foreground and background color of the MS-DOS window.
COMP Compares files.
COMPACT Compresses and uncompress files.
CONTROL Open control panel icons from the MS-DOS prompt.
CONVERT Convert FAT to NTFS.
COPY Copy one or more files to an alternate location.
CTTY Change the computers input/output devices.
DATE View or change the systems date.
DEBUG Debug utility to create assembly programs to modify hardware settings.
DEFRAG Re-arrange the hard disk drive to help with loading programs.
DEL Deletes one or more files.
DELETE Recovery console command that deletes a file.
DELTREE Deletes one or more files and/or directories.
DIR List the contents of one or more directory.
DISABLE Recovery console command that disables Windows system services or drivers.
DISKCOMP Compare a disk with another disk.
DISKCOPY Copy the contents of one disk and place them on another disk.
DOSKEY Command to view and execute commands that have been run in the past.
DOSSHELL A GUI to help with early MS-DOS users.
DRIVPARM Enables overwrite of original device drivers.
ECHO Displays messages and enables and disables echo.
EDIT View and edit files.
EDLIN View and edit files.
EMM386 Load extended Memory Manager.
ENABLE Recovery console command to enable a disable service or driver.
ENDLOCAL Stops the localization of the environment changes enabled by the setlocal command.
ERASE Erase files from computer.
EXIT Exit from the command interpreter.
EXPAND Expand a M*cros*ft Windows file back to it's original format.
EXTRACT Extract files from the M*cros*ft Windows cabinets.
FASTHELP Displays a listing of MS-DOS commands and information about them.
FC Compare files.
FDISK Utility used to create partitions on the hard disk drive.
FIND Search for text within a file.
FINDSTR Searches for a string of text within a file.
FIXBOOT Writes a new boot sector.
FIXMBR Writes a new boot record to a disk drive.
FOR Boolean used in batch files.
FORMAT Command to erase and prepare a disk drive.
FTP Command to connect and operate on a FTP server.
FTYPE Displays or modifies file types used in file extension associations.
GOTO Moves a batch file to a specific label or location.
GRAFTABL Show extended characters in graphics mode.
HELP Display a listing of commands and brief explanation.
IF Allows for batch files to perform conditional processing.
IFSHLP.SYS 32-bit file manager.
IPCONFIG Network command to view network adapter settings and assigned values.
KEYB Change layout of keyboard.
LABEL Change the label of a disk drive.
LH Load a device driver in to high memory.
LISTSVC Recovery console command that displays the services and drivers.
LOADFIX Load a program above the first 64k.
LOADHIGH Load a device driver in to high memory.
LOCK Lock the hard disk drive.
LOGON Recovery console command to list installations and enable administrator login.
MAP Displays the device name of a drive.
MD Command to create a new directory.
MEM Display memory on system.
MKDIR Command to create a new directory.
MODE Modify the port or display settings.
MORE Display one page at a time.
MOVE Move one or more files from one directory to another directory.
MSAV Early M*cros*ft Virus scanner.
MSD Diagnostics utility.
MSCDEX Utility used to load and provide access to the CD-ROM.
NBTSTAT Displays protocol statistics and current TCP/IP connections using NBT
NET Update, fix, or view the network or network settings
NETSH Configure dynamic and static network information from MS-DOS.
NETSTAT Display the TCP/IP network protocol statistics and information.
NLSFUNC Load country specific information.
NSLOOKUP Look up an IP address of a domain or host on a network.
PATH View and modify the computers path location.
PATHPING View and locate locations of network latency.
PAUSE Command used in batch files to stop the processing of a command.
PING Test / send information to another network computer or network device.
POPD Changes to the directory or network path stored by the pushd command.
POWER Conserve power with computer portables.
PRINT Prints data to a printer port.
PROMPT View and change the MS-DOS prompt.
PUSHD Stores a directory or network path in memory so it can be returned to at any time.
QBASIC Open the QBasic.
RD Removes an empty directory.
REN Renames a file or directory.
RENAME Renames a file or directory.
RMDIR Removes an empty directory.
ROUTE View and configure windows network route tables.
RUNAS Enables a user to execute a program on another computer.
SCANDISK Run the scandisk utility.
SCANREG Scan registry and recover registry from errors.
SET Change one variable or string to another.
SETLOCAL Enables local environments to be changed without affecting anything else.
SETVER Change MS-DOS version to trick older MS-DOS programs.
SHARE Installs support for file sharing and locking capabilities.
SHIFT Changes the position of replaceable parameters in a batch program.
SHUTDOWN Shutdown the computer from the MS-DOS prompt.
SMARTDRV Create a disk cache in conventional memory or extended memory.
SORT Sorts the input and displays the output to the screen.
START Start a separate window in Windows from the MS-DOS prompt.
SUBST Substitute a folder on your computer for another drive letter.
SWITCHES Remove add functions from MS-DOS.
SYS Transfer system files to disk drive.
TELNET Telnet to another computer / device from the prompt.
TIME View or modify the system time.
TITLE Change the title of their MS-DOS window.
TRACERT Visually view a network packets route across a network.
TREE View a visual tree of the hard disk drive.
TYPE Display the contents of a file.
UNDELETE Undelete a file that has been deleted.
UNFORMAT Unformat a hard disk drive.
UNLOCK Unlock a disk drive.
VER Display the version information.
VERIFY Enables or disables the feature to determine if files have been written properly.
VOL Displays the volume information about the designated drive.
XCOPY Copy multiple files, directories, and/or drives from one location to another.
TRUENAME When placed before a file, will display the whole directory in which it exists
TASKKILL It allows you to kill those unneeded or locked up applications